Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo

Lea Mpobela

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo

Lea Mpobela^*

Published in International Journal of Language and Linguistics (Volume 13, Issue 6)

Received: 3 October 2025 Accepted: 22 October 2025 Published: 28 November 2025

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Abstract

This paper presents the names formed through associative -a in Runyambo. The formation of nouns in Bantu languages employ several strategies including the use of associative -a which differ in productivity in different languages. The paper looks at this process as a productive one especially in forming personal and place names in Runyambo. The paper is descriptive in nature with qualitative data presented through listing and morphological parsing. The names were collected from five native speakers; What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions; extraction from written materials and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. It was found that associative -a is very productive in the formation of names in Runyambo. It is used to associate an entity being named with the environment and its meaning. Being a dependent morpheme, it attaches to noun class agreement affixes to agree with the nouns it associates. In names, the associative -a ‘of’ occurs as a prefix as in class 9/10 nya- in a personal name Nyangoma ‘of drum’. The other forms include ka- class 12, cha- class 7, bhya- class 8, rwa- class 11, etc. Among which when used in personal names nya- is feminine, rwa, bhya and cha are masculine and ka is diminutive. Despite having morphological features, names in Runyanyo are meaningful and reflect the culture of the speakers.

Published in	International Journal of Language and Linguistics (Volume 13, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
Page(s)	219-227
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Associative a-, Names, Morphological Features, Morpheme, Prefix

1. Introduction

Naming is one of the basic practices found in human language. Entities, places, people, activities, cultural performances, rituals etc are named in different communities (

[9]

(Nick names);

[17]

(Place names);

[18]

(hair style names);

[21]

(personal names)). This paper investigates the formation of names by associative -a ‘of” in Runyambo and their meanings. Schücker and Ackermann

[19]

argue that proper names possess morphosyntactic structure which may be simple or complex. These features differentiate names from other nouns. Mpobela

[17]

presents the way associative -a is used in the formation of place names briefly. This paper expands this into place names and other categories of names including personal names in Runyambo, a Bantu language spoken in in the North western part of Tanzania.

2. Literature Review

Associative -a is a productive affix in forming names in different languages. Such is found in Bantu and non Bantu languages as discussed in this section. Names in Bantu are said to possess varied morphological features. The studies on names in Bantu evidence how morphologically rich the names are. Place names

[6, 17]

, personal names

[1, 2]

, nicknames

[9]

show different ways in which names in Bantu languages can be formed. Most of these scholars evidence the presence of associative -a in forming names.

2.1. Associative -a in Forming Names in Different Languages

In Turkana, some personal names are morphologically complex formed from verbs by the attachment of /-ka/ as in Ekaremoni ‘to spear with a spear’ and Ekapoloni ‘a chief’ (Lit. Being senior)

[11]

. The morphological richness of names is also presented in Ṱshivenḓa by Mandende

[15]

in which different word formation processes deriving names from verbs, adjectives, first person pronoun singular, verb stems and associative pronouns are discussed. The names in this language are also further formed from verb phrases, negative phrases and interrogative phrases.

In Siswati, personal names are morphologically marked for gender with lo- and -so- marking male names and the suffix -iwe marking female names

[23]

. The prefixes lo- and so- seem to have associative features despite being feminine and masculine respectively. For instance, the name lomvula means mother of death which indicates association. It was reported that in Siswati, a daughter is given the name of her father with the feminine prefix la (Lamagadlela ‘daughter of Magadlela’ which to me is the associative -a as it is translated as daughter of without the term for daughter being included. Similarly, in Toposa language of Teso-Turkana the personal names are classified based on gender in which ɲe, ɲi (masculine singular and plural respectively), ɲa, ŋa (feminine singular and plural respectively) in class one, and lo and ta-lo for masculine singular and plural, and na for feminine singular in class two

[11]

are classified. These presents the evidence that names in different languages are marked for different morphological properties including gender. This paper discusses names which are formed by the attachment of associative -a. it sets out to find if the associative -a associates with gender in naming places and people.

Asiimwe

[2]

presents the attachment of associative -a in forming personal names in Rukiga, a Bantu language spoken in Uganda. The formatives include the class 12 ka as in Kemigisha (Ka-emigisha) ‘of luck’, class 11 rwa as in Rwenduru ‘of noise’, class 8 bya in Byamugisha (e-by-a omugisha), and class 7 ekya in Kyomugisha (E-ky-a o-mu-gisha) ‘of a blessing’. The attachment of associative -a is not limited to personal names. This is evidenced in the cow name enyankore ‘of Ankore’ given by Mberwa and Tibategeza

[16]

which shows the use of associative -a in forming names of difference Kinds in Haya which is closely related to Runyambo, a subject of this study. Some personal names possess the same feature in the same language as presented by Buberwa

[3]

who identifies the place names like Kemyongu ‘of pumpkin’ Kyenjubu ‘of hippopotamus’, Kyebikobe ‘of big monkeys’, Kakajoju ‘of small elephant’, Kankende ‘of monkey’ which are made up of noun class 7 prefix -ki and class 12 ka- respectively. The prefixes Nya- (Nyakigando) ‘of cassava’ rwa (Rwabangereza) ‘of the British’ show the richness of this process in Haya. Being closer in inter-comprehension with Haya, Runyambo is believed to have many names formed by the associative -a which is the focus of this study.

Anindo

[1]

presents 3 morphological processes involved in forming Lulogooli toponyms including derivation, inflection and compounding and blending. The associative -a is among the affixes that seem to be found in Lulogooli as in Chavakali ‘of wives’ in which cha is an associative -a. Mpobela

[17]

discusses the productivity of associative -a ‘of’ in forming place names in Runyambo. The forms function as prefixes inclunding Nya- which she classifies in noun class 9/10, rwa- in class 11, cha- in class 7 and ka- in class 12. In a different way, Asiimwe

[2]

separates nya from other associative forms in Luganda arguing that it means mother of. This adds to my curiosity to see if it means the same in Runyambo names as I will include names of different kinds.

Lusekelo

[13]

presents the names in Kinyakyusa including those prefixed with mwa- ‘son of’, and sa- ‘son of mother X’ which show the associative -a ‘of’ in mwa as in Mwabwite ‘son of a fighter’, Mwaitete ‘son of a reed’ and Mwasambongo ‘son of mother of buffalo’. To evidence this, Lusekelo

[13]

gives examples of male names like Mwabulesi ‘of milk’ and Mwangengele ‘of plant species taking mwa as associative -a agreeing with noun class one which refer to human beings. This structure is very productive in Nyakyusa. Discussing the morphological processes in Chasu personal naming, Sebonde

[20]

presents names like Nampoa ‘of slowly’, Semkae ‘of old’ with the associative na- for feminine and se- for masculine. The evidence of na- being associative is seen in the examples given by Sebonde including Konakiete ‘Mother of Nakiete’, Namburi of news’, Namwai ‘of a maiden’ Nankware ‘of quail’ which are female names and Semnkande ‘of good’, Senkuku ‘of chicken’ and Senkando ‘of wall’ used for males. This process is productive in forming personal names in Chasu. While Sebonde focuses on personal names, this study discusses the use of the associative -a in forming names of different kinds in Runyambo.

Discussing about nouns formed from associative pronouns in Tshvenḓa, Mandende

[15]

argues that some names reflect possession. In the presented examples, the associative pronouns which agree with the nouns are reflected. For example, the name Ṱhohoyanḓou ‘head of an elephant’ is made up of a noun ṱhoho ‘head’ and associative ya ‘of’ and a noun nḓou ‘elephant’. Two forms of such names are presented including the derivation from noun, and a possessive phrase as given above and an adverb with a possessive phrase as in Musiwalwo ‘its time’ derived from the adverb musi time’ and wa ‘of’ lwo ‘it’. Lwo in this context refers to the class 11 noun lufu ‘death’ which is an associative stem. This work on Ṱshivenḓa shows the presence of the associative -a in forming personal names but it does not show how productive this is in the language. While Asiimwe

[2]

presents associative -a as occurring with a noun (the possessed), in Ṱshivenḓa, the associative -a occurs with the two nouns (the possessor and the possessed). This paper discusses if Runyambo reflect both structures in the formation of names or only one of the two is present.

Associative -a seems to be available in most Bantu languages though different in productivity. It is presented as a productive process in some languages and less productive in others. In Zulu, bird names like ivukuthu-lehlath ‘rameron pigeon’ from ivukuthu ‘pigeon’ lehlath ‘of the forest’, isikhombazane-sehlath ‘tambourine dove (lit. dove of the forest)’ isikhombezane-sehlanze ‘green spotted dove (lit. dove of bush-veld)’ are identified by Koopman and Turner

[12]

. Also, they add birds names like igwalagwala logu ‘Livingstone's turaco’ is derived from igwalagwala ‘turaco’ la ‘of’ and ugu ‘coast’ while isikhova sexhaphozi ‘Marsh owl’ derives from isikhova ‘owl’, sa ‘of’ and ixhaphozi ‘marsh’ which possess the same feature which shows that associative -a can be used richly in forming names of different species in different Bantu languages. In the work by Turne r

[24]

, the names Muziwenduku/ M’ziwempi ‘home of the stick’ are found showing that associative -a is used in forming names in many Bantu cultures. The name Muziwenduku is derived from muzi ‘home’ which is a noun, wa ‘of’ and nduku ‘stick’ which is a noun. While this formation seems similar to what is presented in Ṱshivenḓa

[15]

, it differs form Luganda

[2]

in which only an associative -a and the noun are found. This study looks at this trait in Runyambo names to add to the evidence that most Bantu languages exhibit this feature.

Nicknames in Kiswahili are classified morphologically by Taji

[22]

into single element, two element, and phrasal element nicknames among which the three names Jicho la Bwana ‘Lord’s eye’, Makombo ya moto ‘fire survivor’ and Mzee wa upako ‘master of anointing’ are formed by an associative -a ‘of’ (noun class 5, 6, 1). So, among the word formation processes of nicknames in Kiswahili, the attachment of associative -a is reported though not as a productive one. The same formation is also reported in Tonga nicknames

[8]

like Cibwacamazakala ‘a huge dog of fur’ formed through compounding of a class 7 noun cibwa ‘big/huge dog’ an associative ca agreeing with the noun, and a noun mazakala ‘fur’. Though Hang’ombe claims camazaka ‘of fur’ to be an adjective, I see it to be made up of a class 7 associative ca and a noun class 6 noun mazakala ‘fur’. Names of this kind seem to exist in many languages. This paper discussess such names in Runyambo.

The formation of names by the associative -a is experienced in Zulu personal names including Zithozenkosi ‘God’s gift’, Hlelolwenkosi ‘God’s plan’, Musawenkosi ‘God’s mercy’, in which the associative za, and wa agrees with the nouns they follow. Such names are compound words made up of three words including two nouns conjoined with the associative -a agreeing with the first noun. The richness of personal names formation in Zulu is also reflected in using the associative pronouns ethu ‘our’ and akhe ‘their’ with the noun and associative -a as in thandolwethu (thando lwa ethu) ‘our love’ Siphosakhe (sipho sa akhe) ‘their gift’ which added to the curiosity of the researcher to find how the associative -a appears in different structures in Runyambo. The other Zulu examples include Siphosethu ‘our gift’ Gugusethu ‘our treasure’, Muziwakhe ‘his homestead

[14]

Hang’ombe

[8]

presents the use of associative -a in forming the nicknames in Tonga. He gives the example like Kayunikabuci ‘honey bird (lit. bird of honey)’ from the noun yuni ‘bird’ to which a noun class 12 diminutive prefix ka- is attached and a noun class 12 genitive/associative ka- agreeing with it, and ends with the noun buci ‘honey’ in class 14. This paper discusses the use of the associative are in forming names of different kinds in Runyambo. It mainly looks at the different realizations of associative a in names of different types. It classified the names in different groups reflecting the noun class to which the associative are belongs.

2.2. The Basic Linguistic Theory (BLT)

BLT is a descriptive theory developed by Dixon

[5]

. The theory posits that each language should be described in its own terms rather than trying to force the language into a model based on European languages. It is a theoretical framework that suggests an approach to describe and analyse languages without basing on pre-established rules or forms that are founded on typological generalizations. The history of this theory can be traced as far back as the works of earlier grammarians who worked on Sanskrit and Greek. As the study of languages developed, it became obvious that a new descriptive theory was required to develop and expand the study of other languages. It is the theory that is flexible and analytic in which each language can be formulated

[4]

The application of Basic Linguistic Theory is inductive. The theory is built on the argument that linguists ought to proceed from language data to description and from the descriptions of many languages to theory. The theory holds that no two languages are precisely alike in any features, so each language must be analysed in its own terms. However, the application can be done in the phenomenon in a language under analysis as long as they are sufficiently similar to those of the language under study. Since the formation of names adhere to the structural properties of the language in which they are found

[2, 17]

, this study will use the BLT to analyse the formation of names by the associative -a in Runyambo.

3. Methodology

The paper is descriptive in nature containing qualitative data. The study was conducted in Karagwe district in Chanika ward in Ruzinga and Chanika villages. The data were collected from five people who are native speakers of the language and have been living in the place all the time. The native speakers aged 50 and above were consulted regardless of their literacy level. Personal names were collected from What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. With regard to place names, the data were extracted from Mpobela

[17]

in addition to the field data. Personal, plants, insects and other names were collected from the field through elicitation and focus group discussion. The collected names’ meanings were obtained through focus group discussion. The data were complemented by my knowledge of the language as I am a native speaker of the same. This also made easy the communication with the informants and the assurance of the quality of the collected data and adherence to ethics of the community and individuals.

4. Findings

The formation of names in Runyambo by associative -a is very productive in forming place names and personal names. It was found to be less productive in forming plants’ names, names of diseases and herbs and birds names. This may be because most of the names in these groups are nouns than proper names. Runyambo names in this category are formed by attaching wa- (class 1) nya- (class 9), cha- (class 7), rwa- (class 11), ka- (class 12), and bhya- (class 8) ‘of’ to the already existing words in Runyambo. Associative –a in Runyambo is an associative preposition which shows that one entity is owned by the other. Most of the names especially personal and place names in Runyambo fall into this category. In most cases, only the associative is attached without the possessed noun at the beginning. This makes it different from some languages like Zulu

[12, 14, 24]

and Songa

[8]

in which the names include two nouns and an associative -a. The associative -a in Runyambo behaves like locative prefixes like ha- in class 16, mu- in class 17 and ku- in class 18. That means, they are attached to fully formed nouns. As the feature of all names in Runyambo, most of the names formed by the associative -a ‘of’ lack augment with exception of a few as will be discussed.

4.1. The Associative Nya

A class 9 associative nya ‘of’ is attached to Runyambo words to form names of different kinds. Nya- is mainly used in forming female names. A few male names were also found in the field disqualifying the argument that nya means ‘mother of’. In Runyambo, nya- rather mean plenty of/presence of which may be taken as feminine because it is mainly used in naming female and women are taken as producers of things. It is reported by Mpobela

[17]

that place names in Runyambo possess many morphological features including the prefixation by the class 9/10 associative nya. Some place names of this nature are presented in 1.

1) Nyakasozi ‘of small hill’

Nyamiyaga ‘of winds’

Nyakabhare ‘of a small stone’

Nyamabhare ‘of stones’

Nyarubhare ‘of pebbles’

Nyakasenyi ‘of a few sand’

Nyakeiga ‘of water stream’

Nyakayanja ‘of a small water body’

Nyakahanga ‘of small low land’

Nyeisozi ‘of a high land’

Nyarwere ‘of plain land’

Nyabhikurungo ‘of big grinding stones’

Nyabhiyonza ‘of big Miyonza trees

Nyakajumbura ‘of a small jumbura plan’

The associative nya ‘of’ is used to form most of the place names in Runyambo as presented in the names in 1. The places are named depending on the geographical features including, hills as in Nyakasozi, Nyacigongo, Nyeisozi; plain lands as in Nyarwere, low lands as in Nyakahanga ‘of a low land’; soil features as in Nyarubhare ‘of small stones’, nyarubhare ‘of pebbles’, Nyakasenyi ‘of sand’; vegetation as in Nyabhiyonza and Nyakajumbura and water bodies like Nyaruyanja ‘of a lake (pejorative)’, Nyakayanja ‘of a small lake’ Nyakagera ‘of a river/spring’. Places in Runyambo are given names reflecting different features.

This process is also reflected in forming personal names in Runyambo. As argued earlier, the personal names in this category are feminine. Some of the examples of personal names in this group are presented hereunder.

2) Nyangoma ‘of drum’

Nyakato ‘a young twin’

Nyanjura ‘of raifall’

Nyamwiza ‘of beauty’

Nyamihanda ‘of roads/paths’

Nyamirembe ‘of blessings’

Nyamurungi ‘of beautiful’

Nyamugore ‘of a bride’

Nyarugenda ‘of travelling’

Nyarwanju ‘of pretence at not liking something’

Nyarusoke ‘of hair’

Nyamicu ‘of good manners’

Nyamuromba ‘of protruding navel’

The personal names in 2 present the wishes, the situations at birth and the place where the names’ bearers were born. For instance, Nyamirembe ‘of blessings, Nyamuruungi ‘of beautiful’, presents the wishes the parents have for their children. On the other hand Nyanjura ‘of rain’ presents the weather at the time the name bearer was born. Despite most of the names in 3 being female, three names Nyarugenda, Nyarusoke and Nyamihanda are male names. It is possible that the presence of noun class 11 prefix -ru- in Nyarugenda and Nyarusoke lenders them masculine. A noun class 11 prefix ru- is used in forming masculine names like Rugemarila and Rutaremwa in the language, which leads to the argument that the combination of nya- which is faminine and ru- which is masculine makes the names masculine. The names Nyarwanju is mostly a nick name and it is feminine due to its meaning which reflects a feminine behaviour. The other names of this kind belong to names of diseases like nyachimasa ‘yellow fever’, and nyamututuma ‘diabetes’, names of birds like nyamurunga ‘bishop bird’ and the name of a king’s drum Nyabhatama. Nyamihanda ‘of paths’ and Nyarugenda ‘of traveling/going’ reflect the place at which the names’ bearers were born, in this case, along the road as the parents travelled. Nyamugore ‘of a bride’ shows that the name bearer was born as her mother was still in-doors as a bride (a tradition among Banyambo that a bride stays in doors for some times which may take up to a year). Nyamiromba ‘of protruding navels’ and Nyarusoke ‘of weak hair’ are named after their physical appearance. In Runyambo, the female twins are named Nyangoma ‘of drum’ for the elder twin, Nyakato ‘of young’ for the young twin’, Nyamwiza ‘of beauty’ a girl born after the twins and Nyamicu born after Nyamwiza.

The personal names in in this group are formed by the associative nya-. The prefix is attached to the fully formed nouns, adjectives and nominalized verbs to form names. For instance, Nyangoma is derived from nya- and a noun class 9/10 noun N-goma ‘drum’ and Nyamurungi from nya-, class one mu- and the adjective rungi ‘good’. On the other hand, Nyarugenda is formed from the nominalized verb with noun class 14 prefix -ru, and the verb genda ‘go’.

The associative nya- is formed from noun class 9/10 prefix N- and the bound preposition –a. The associative Nya is attached to nouns, verbs and adjectives to form names. The formed names indicate possession in the meanings of the names. The evidence is reflected in the examples of place names presented in 3.

3) a) Nyamihingo

N-a-mi-hingo

cl.9-of-cl.4-cattle fold wood

‘of cattle fold wood’

b) Nyabhitaabha

N-a-bhi-taabha

cl.9-of-cl.8-dam‘

of big dams’

c) Nyakaziba

N-a-ka-zibha

cl.9-of-12-stream

‘of a small stream’

d) Nyarugoye

N-a-ru-goye

cl.9-of-cl.11-potato leave

‘of sweet potato leave’

e) Nyacitaabha

N-a-ci-taabha

cl.9-of-cl.7-dam

‘of a big dam’

f) Nyabhuzibha

N-a-bhu-zibha

cl.9-of-cl.13-stream

‘of small stream

As seen in the examples in 3 the associative nya- is attached as a prefix to fully formed words making a name to have 3 prefixes (2 noun class prefixes, an associative nya and a root. The place name Nyamihingo ‘of cattle fold wood’ for instance is formed by 4 morphemes including noun class 9 prefix N-, associative -a-, noun class 3 prefix -mi- and the root -hingo. Also, Nyarugoye ‘of potato leave’ is a place name formed by 3 prefixes including noun class 9 prefix N-, associative -a-, noun class 11 prefix -ru, and the root -goye. The process is similar to both place and personal names. While personal names reflect the situation at birth, the physical appearance of the child at birth, the behaviour of the child and the place at which a child is born, place names reflect the geographical features of the place.

4.2. The Associative Rwa

Some names in Runyambo are also formed by the noun class 11 associative rwa ‘of’ from noun class prefix ru-, and the preposition -a which just as nya, is attached to fully formed words. Rwa is attached to words to form place names as in 4

4) Rwambare ‘of stone’

Rwabhitembe ‘of wild banana’

Rwizinga ‘of vacated place’

Rwabhahimba ‘of Bhahimba clan’

Rwenjubhu ‘of hippopotamus’

Rwambeho ‘of coldness’

Rwabhurila ‘of tears’

Rwentundu ‘of ntundu banana’

Rwimisundo ‘of worms’

Rwamugurusi ‘of elder’

Rwanda ‘of pregnancy/stomach’

The place names in 4 are formed by the associative -a which is the most occurring feature among the place names in Runyambo. Just like the place names formed by nya-, the place names in this group reflect the geographical features of the place. They reflect the agricultural activities carried out in this the area such as Rwantundu ‘of entundu kind of bananas’ and Rwabhitembe ‘of wild banana’ where wild bananas always used in feeding animals grow. Some reflect the fauna found in the area like Rwenjubhu reflecting the presence of hippopotamus, Rwanyango ‘of a kind of poisonous ants’ and Rwimisundo reflecting the presence of worms. Weather also is reflected in some names like Rwambeho ‘of coldness’. The names also may reflect the clan or famous people living in the area like Rwamugurusi ‘of an elder, and Rwabhahimba ‘of abhahimba clan.

In Runyambo, it was found that this feature is not specific to place names as it is also found productively in personal names mainly males names. The children among the Nyambo speakers are given names of this kind reflecting different circumstances. The names are reflected in 5

5) Rwabhibhi ‘of bad things’

Rwenduru ‘of noise’

Rwakarengo ‘of peak’

Rwachiromba ‘of protruding navel’

Rwabhukambwe ‘of sour taste’

Rwazo ‘of them (problems)’

Rwente ‘of cows’

Rwabhuti ‘of small trees’

Rwamuzigu ‘of enmity

Rwabhunyasi ‘of grasses’

Rwabwigamo ‘of leaning place’

Rwamunana ‘of eight’

Rwakajende ‘of slowness’

Rwameina ‘of graves/big hols’

The personal names in this group are male names semantically presenting the places and circumstances and birth. For instance, the names Rwakarengo ‘of hill peak’ presents the place where the named was born, that is, he was born as they had the journey and they had reached at the peak of the hill. Rwamizigu presents the situation in which the child was born and the enmity relationship that existed among parents or neighbours during pregnancy. Rwabhunyasi ‘of grass’ was possibly born when the mother had gone to cut the glass which in the place are used as carpets. Rwenduru ‘of noise’ was given because of the crying of the baby during infancy.

Just like nya-, the noun class 11 associative rwa attaches to the already formed words to form names in Runyambo. The names to which Rwa is attached belong to different noun classes depending on the entity it is referring to as in 6

6) a) Rwabhitembe

ru-a-bhi-tembe

of-cl.8-wild banana

‘of wild banana’

b) Rwandaaro

Ru-a-n-raaro

of-cl.10-small ritual hurts

‘of small hurts for religious ritual’

c) Rwenjuju

ru-a-e-n-juju

cl.11-of-AUG-cl.9-cobra

‘of cobra’

d) Rwentuhe

ru-a-e-n-tuhe

cl.11-of-AUG-cl.9-crested crane’

‘of crested crane’

e) Rwamitima

ru-a-mi-tima

cl.11-of-cl.4-heart

‘of hearts’

f) Rwentundu

Ru-a-e-n-tundu

cl.11-of-AUG-cl.9-type of banana

‘of a kind of banana’

The names in this group are divided into two structures. On one hand, the preposition rwa- is attached to a fully formed noun without an augment as in a), d) and e). Prefixes in b), c) and f) are formed with nouns in group 9 in which different from other formations, a fully formed noun with an augment is combined with rwa to form a place name. Then a morphophonological process happens in which the vowel on the preposition rwa is merged with an augment to form the place names like Rwentuhe ‘of crested crane’ Rwenjuju ‘of cobbler and Rwentundu of kind of banana’.

4.3. Associative Ca

Other names in Runyambo are formed by the noun class 7 associative ca ‘of’ which like rwa attaches to the nouns differently. In the nouns in class 8, 9 and 5, it includes the augment making the preposition to be realized as ca, ce- and ci-. The vowels on the prefix assimilate to the augment in class 9 and to the noun class prefix in class 5 and 8. Just like with the previously discussed categories, ca- forms both place and personal names in Runyambo. The place names in this group are presented in 7

7) Ciitukuza ‘of whitening’

Cengabhi ‘of gazelle’

Camaguru ‘of legs’

Ceibhumba ‘of clay soil’

Ciitumbi ‘of mid night’

Cakajura ‘of a rainfall (ka - dimunitive)’

Cabhahaya ‘of Haya people’

Cabhayanda ‘of Yanda people’

Censwera ‘of flies’

Cencwera ‘of black mamba’

The place names in this group semantically reflect the features attached to the area to which the name is given. This includes the people, landscapes, insects, and the weather of the place. For instance, Ciitukuza and Chiibhumba reflects the colour of the soil which was being used to make the brides white, to mold pots and as paintings on the houses. Cakajura ‘of small rainfall’ is a fertile land at which many agricultural products grow. Cabhahaya and Cabhayanda reflects the settlement of the clans, while Cengabhi reflects the presence of gazelle in the area.

Personal names are also formed in this group. However, ca- is less productive in forming personal names. Just like other names, they reflect the wishes by the parents, the circumstances at birth and other features. Only 4 personal names were encountered including Camani ‘of strength formed from noun class seven associative ca- and adjectival noun amani ‘strength’ and Cakuringa ‘ of showing off’ which is a nickname made up of an associative ca- ‘of’ and a nominalized verb kuringa ‘to show off’. The other name is Cakasese ‘of Kasese’ a nick name given to a woman from a place called Kasese. Cenkungu ‘of hornless cow/goat/sheep’ is a personal names formed from the associative ca- ‘of’ and the noun enkungu ‘hornless cow/sheep/goat’. the name was also said to mean king. Just like in a place names Cengabhi, the vowel /a/ of ca- deletes leaving the augment of the noun enkungu in class 9/10.

The names in this group are formed by attaching the noun class 7 preposition ca- ‘of’ to the nouns, some of which are fully formed and others lack an augment as in the already discussed place names. This reveals the evidence that place names in Runyambo possess various morphological structures which are unique to place names. The morphology of such names are presented in 8

8) a) Ciitukuza

Ca-i-tukur-i-a

of-cl.5-be white/red-CAUS-FV

‘of whitening/ reddening’

b) Ciitumbi

Ci-a i-tumbi

cl.7-of-cl.5-mid night

‘of mid night’

c) Cengabhi

ci-a-e-n-gabhi

cl.7-of-AUG-cl.9-gazelle

‘of gazelle’

d) Cibhicucu

ci-a-e-bhi-cucu

cl.7-of-AUG-cl.8-dust

‘of dust’

e) Censwera

ci-a-e-n-swera

cl.7-of-AUG-cl.9-fly

‘of flies’

f) Cencwera

ci-a e-n-cwera

cl.7-of-AUG-cl.9-spite

‘of black mamba’

The place names in 8 possess varied structures depending on the vowel of the noun to which they are attached. In a), the preposition ca- is attached to the nominalized verb itukuza ‘which whitens’. The noun itukuza is nominalized by a noun class 5 prefix i- resulting into the deletion of the vowel on the preposition ca- and the compensatory lengthening of i- resulting into ciitukuza. Similarly, the place name ciitumbi is formed by a combination of a prefix ca- and a class 5 noun itummbi ‘midnight’ resulting into the deletion of -a and lengthening of i-. The Place name Cibhicucu on the other hand is formed by the associative prefix ca- attached to a class eight noun ebhicucu merging the vowels /a/ in a prefix and an augment e- in ebhicucu into i- to form a place name Cibhicucu. In the place names in b), d) and f) the vowel a- on ca- deletes leaving the Augment e- on nouns to form the place nouns.

4.4. The Associative Ka-

The associative ka- is formed in noun class 12 which consists of diminutive singular nouns. The prefixation of associative ka- is found on many names and still new names especially personal names can be created using the same. Both personal and place names are found in this group. The personal names are are follows,

9) Kumugisa ‘of blessing (female)’ Karugaba ‘of God (male)’

Kimigisa ‘of blessings (female)’ Kamihanda ‘of path/way (male)’

Kimirembe ‘of grace (female)’ Kamafa ‘of dissers9ters (male)’

Kukusubhira ‘of hoping (female)’ Kamugisa ‘of blessings (male)’

Kukwenda ‘of loving (female)’ Karuhanga ‘of God (male)’

Kukwijuka ‘of remembering (female)’ Karugendo ‘of a journey (male)’

Kukutona ‘of fortune (female)’ Kimikimba ‘of charms (male)’

The personal names in 9 present the use of class 11 associative ka-. Just like other names formed by associative -a in the above groups, the names in this group reflect the wishes of parents and name givers on the children like blessings in Kumugisa, Kimigisa for female and Kamugisha for male and grace in names like Kimirembe and Kukushubira which refers to hope. The other names reflect the community’s belief in God include Karugaba, and Karuhanga both of which are male names. The other names reflect the situations at birth Kamafa referring to disasters and Karugendo showing that a child was born along the way or when the father or relative had traveled. This relates with Kamihanda given to the child who was born along the way. Kimikimba is given to a child who was born through charms after the parents could not have children for long time.

This process of forming names by ka- is not limited to personal names only. It is also used richly in forming place names. Not all names with the prefix ka- fall in this group. Some are formed by the noun 11 class prefix ka- which is not associative. The use of associative -a is determined the presence of complete nouns to which it is attached as in 10.

10) Kabhahuta ‘of Bhahuta clan’ Kabhafu ‘of the dead’

Kamakara ‘of coal/charcoal’ Kamaato ‘of boat’

Kamagambo ‘of magambo’ Kabhugimbi ‘of dust’

Kachibhango ‘of a big hump’ Kachichwamba ‘of

kind of glass’

Kamuganga ‘of a muganga tree Kansambya ‘of sa

bya trees’

Kanzamba ‘of bugle, horn’ Kambeija ‘of lumbering’

Kanture of a fall’ Kambare ‘of big stones’

The place names in 10 add to the richness of names morphology in Runyambo. Names possess many morphological properties including the rich prefixation by associative -a especially in place and personal names. The names in 10 reflect the features of the places just like other names including the geographical features, flora and fauna, the people and the behavior of the people.

The names in this group undergo the morphological process of prefixation with different morpho-phonological alterations just as discussed in the other groups. While most of the female personal names undergo the processes of coalescence of the final vowel of the associative -a and the augment e/o of the noun to which it is attached, the male names delete the augment of the noun to which ka is attached. That is evidenced in Kimirembe from ka- and emirembe, and Kimigisha from ka- and emigisha which reflect the coalescence of /a/ and /e/ to /i/. The personal name Kimikimba draws from ka and emikimba in which to vowels a- and -e coalesce to form i. The other instance of coalescence is found in Kukwenda, Kumugisa, Kukutona in which -a of the ka- coalesce with -o of the nouns to form u. this feature is not reflected in male and place names in which the augment of the noun to which ka- is attached deletes making all the nouns to begin with ka-.

4.5. Associative Bhya

The associative bhya- is used to form personal names in Runyambo. It is formed in noun class eight which semantically refer to things. Names in this group encompass the beliefs the parents have about the origin and future of the children. It presents their beliefs in committing the lives of their children to God, and that whatever happens in their life is the will of God and other powers like death. The names such as

11) Bhyarugabha ‘of God’

Bhyengonzi ‘of love’

Bhyakazobha ‘of God’

Bhyamungu ‘of God’

Bhyakatonda ‘of God’

Bhyaruhanga ‘of God’

Bhyarufu ‘of death’

Bhyarusengo ‘of diserster’

Bhyabusa ‘of emptyness’

The names Bhyarugabha, Bhyakatonda, Bhyakazobha, Bhyamungu, Bhyaruhanga ‘of God’ reflect the belief of the Nyambo community in God. It also shows that God has many names in Runyambo reflecting the activities believed to be performed by God. For instance, Rugabha ‘the God who gives’ Katonda ‘God the creator’, Kazobha ‘god sun’, Mungu ‘God’ Ruhanga ‘God creator’ are personal names reflecting the power of God in giving the children. On the other hand, the names Bhyarufu ‘of death’ and Bhyarusengo ‘of trouble’ reflect the situation of the family at birth. The names are given to children born during funeral or loss of the loved one or any disaster during their infancy before they are named. The name Bhyengozi ‘of love’ reflects the love between the parents of a child.

These names are morphologically formed by the class eight agreement prefix bhi- attached to the associative -a. The combination of /i/ and /a/ in Runyambo glides to ya- making the associative to be bhya-. The attachment of bhya- on a noun deletes the augment of the noun in the names Bhyarufu from bhya- ‘of’ orufu ‘death’ and Bhyarusengo from bhya- ‘of’ and orusengo ‘trouble’. In the names derived from the names of God, the augment is not included as argued by Mpobela

[17]

and Asiimwe

[2]

that names differ from nouns by not carrying augments. Different from the other names, Bhyengozi (bhya-engonzi) has the vowel /e/ resulting from the deletion of the final -a of the associative leaving the noun class nine augment e-.

4.6. The Associative Ga- and Other Formatives

The names in Runyambo are productively formed by the associative -a in different noun classes as discussed above. Some of them are productively used in forming personal and place names while others are less productive. Only one personal names was found to be formed by the noun class 6 associative ga- which is Gabhukambwe ‘of sour’. This is referring to the sour alcohol amarwa ga obhukambwe. The other name is Gabhagambi

The other names are formed with the associative a- with augment in different noun classes. Such includes a noun class one personal name owamazima ‘of truth’ formed by the augment o- with the noun class one associative wa- and the noun amazima ‘truth’. The other names in this pattern are names of diseases like Eyahansi ‘skin disease’ from class nine augment e- associative -ya and class 16 noun ahansi ‘down’ enyabhakeikuru ‘kind of skin peeling on the fingers’ from augment e-, associative nya- and class 2 noun abhakeikuru ‘female elders’

5. Conclusion

The formation of names by the associative -a in different noun classes in Runyambo includes only one noun/word, which looks similar to what is presented by Asiimwe (2022) in Luganda. It differs from other languages like Zulu

[24]

, Kinyarwanda

[10]

and Songa

[7, 8]

in which some names are formed by three words including two nouns conjoined by the associative. In Runyambo such names were not found among the place or personal names. Generally, the associative -a is productive in forming place and personal names in Runyambo. This paper concentrates much on place and personal names and briefly on other kinds of names like names of plants, diseases and animals. A detailed study on plants names and other names in Runyambo should be conducted.

Abbreviations

AUG	Augment
BLT	Basic Linguistic Theory
CAUS	Causative
cl.	Noun Class
FV	Final Vowel
Lit	Literal Meaning

Author Contributions

Lea Mpobela is the sole author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

There is no conflict of interest.

References

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[2]	Asiimwe, A. (2022). A linguistic analysis of Rukiga Personal names. Journal of the language association of Eastern Africa. Vol. 1(1), Art 2.
[3]	Buberwa, A. (2012). Sociolinguistic meaning of Bantu place names: The case of Ruhaya in North-western Tanzania. Journal for Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 1(2), 111-120.
[4]	Dixon, R. M. W., (2010). Basic linguistic Theory. Vol. 2. Grammatical Topics. Oxford University Press.
[5]	Dixon, R. M. W., (2012). Basic linguistic Theory. Vol. 3 Further Grammatical Topics. Oxford University Press.
[6]	Elias, T. N., Mpobela, L. & Tibategeza, E. R (2023). Alinguistic Study of Village names in Ngara District, Kagera Region, Tanzania. International Journal of Culture and History. 10(1), 32-59. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijch.v10i1.20695
[7]	Hang’ombe K., (2015). Morphology and semantics of Tonga Antroponyms: A case of Tonga given names and nicknames. M. A Dissertation. University of Zambia.
[8]	Hang’ombe K., (2020). Morphosyntax of Nicknames. Internationa; Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS). Vol.4(3), 9-14.
[9]	Kabaso, F. M., A morphological and semantic analysis of nicknames in Ng’umbo. M. A Dissertation. The University of Zambia.
[10]	Kimenyi, A. (1978). Aspects of naming in Kinyarwanda. Antropological Linguistics. Vol. 20(6), 258-271.
[11]	Kinyua, S. W. (2020). A morphosemantic study of Anthroponyms: Turkana Personal names. M. A. Dissertation. University of Nairobi.
[12]	Koopman, A., & Turner, D. N., (2019). Morphology of Zulu bird name: Old and new. South African Journal of African Languages. Vol. 39(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2019.1572309
[13]	Lusekelo, A. (2018). An account of intercultural contact in Nyakusa Personal names. African Study Monographs. Vol. 39(2), 47-67.
[14]	Machate-Nkabinde, M. L., Madende, I. P., & Casiko M. P. (2023). The interface between compounding and naming: A case study of Zulu personal names. Nomina Africana. Vol. 37(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/102989/NA.2023.37.1.1.1373
[15]	Mandende, I. P. (2009) Astudy on Ṱshivenda Personal names. PhD Thesis. University of South Africa.
[16]	Mberwa O. J., & Tibategeza, E. R. (2022). Factors influencing Cattle naming in Haya Speech community. International Journal of Language and Linguistics. vol. 10(4), 228-238. https://doi.org.10.11648/j.ijll.20221004.12
[17]	Mpobela L., (2024). Morphological properties of place names in Runyambo. International journal of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 12(1). 16-26.
[18]	Pius A., Tibategeza, E. R., & Ligembe, N. N., (2024) A linguistic study of hair style names. International Journal of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 12(2), 71-85.
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Mpobela, L. (2025). Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 13(6), 219-227. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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Mpobela, L. Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. Int. J. Lang. Linguist. 2025, 13(6), 219-227. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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AMA Style

Mpobela L. Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. Int J Lang Linguist. 2025;13(6):219-227. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12,
  author = {Lea Mpobela},
  title = {Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo},
  journal = {International Journal of Language and Linguistics},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {219-227},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijll.20251306.12},
  abstract = {This paper presents the names formed through associative -a in Runyambo. The formation of nouns in Bantu languages employ several strategies including the use of associative -a which differ in productivity in different languages. The paper looks at this process as a productive one especially in forming personal and place names in Runyambo. The paper is descriptive in nature with qualitative data presented through listing and morphological parsing. The names were collected from five native speakers; What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions; extraction from written materials and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. It was found that associative -a is very productive in the formation of names in Runyambo. It is used to associate an entity being named with the environment and its meaning. Being a dependent morpheme, it attaches to noun class agreement affixes to agree with the nouns it associates. In names, the associative -a ‘of’ occurs as a prefix as in class 9/10 nya- in a personal name Nyangoma ‘of drum’. The other forms include ka- class 12, cha- class 7, bhya- class 8, rwa- class 11, etc. Among which when used in personal names nya- is feminine, rwa, bhya and cha are masculine and ka is diminutive. Despite having morphological features, names in Runyanyo are meaningful and reflect the culture of the speakers.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo
AU  - Lea Mpobela
Y1  - 2025/11/28
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
T2  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JF  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JO  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
SP  - 219
EP  - 227
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-0221
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
AB  - This paper presents the names formed through associative -a in Runyambo. The formation of nouns in Bantu languages employ several strategies including the use of associative -a which differ in productivity in different languages. The paper looks at this process as a productive one especially in forming personal and place names in Runyambo. The paper is descriptive in nature with qualitative data presented through listing and morphological parsing. The names were collected from five native speakers; What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions; extraction from written materials and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. It was found that associative -a is very productive in the formation of names in Runyambo. It is used to associate an entity being named with the environment and its meaning. Being a dependent morpheme, it attaches to noun class agreement affixes to agree with the nouns it associates. In names, the associative -a ‘of’ occurs as a prefix as in class 9/10 nya- in a personal name Nyangoma ‘of drum’. The other forms include ka- class 12, cha- class 7, bhya- class 8, rwa- class 11, etc. Among which when used in personal names nya- is feminine, rwa, bhya and cha are masculine and ka is diminutive. Despite having morphological features, names in Runyanyo are meaningful and reflect the culture of the speakers.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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Lea Mpobela

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Saint Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania

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http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3695-1110

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APA Style

Mpobela, L. (2025). Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 13(6), 219-227. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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Mpobela, L. Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. Int. J. Lang. Linguist. 2025, 13(6), 219-227. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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Mpobela L. Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo. Int J Lang Linguist. 2025;13(6):219-227. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12,
  author = {Lea Mpobela},
  title = {Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo},
  journal = {International Journal of Language and Linguistics},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {219-227},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijll.20251306.12},
  abstract = {This paper presents the names formed through associative -a in Runyambo. The formation of nouns in Bantu languages employ several strategies including the use of associative -a which differ in productivity in different languages. The paper looks at this process as a productive one especially in forming personal and place names in Runyambo. The paper is descriptive in nature with qualitative data presented through listing and morphological parsing. The names were collected from five native speakers; What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions; extraction from written materials and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. It was found that associative -a is very productive in the formation of names in Runyambo. It is used to associate an entity being named with the environment and its meaning. Being a dependent morpheme, it attaches to noun class agreement affixes to agree with the nouns it associates. In names, the associative -a ‘of’ occurs as a prefix as in class 9/10 nya- in a personal name Nyangoma ‘of drum’. The other forms include ka- class 12, cha- class 7, bhya- class 8, rwa- class 11, etc. Among which when used in personal names nya- is feminine, rwa, bhya and cha are masculine and ka is diminutive. Despite having morphological features, names in Runyanyo are meaningful and reflect the culture of the speakers.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Associative -a as a Productive Affix in Names Formation in Runyambo
AU  - Lea Mpobela
Y1  - 2025/11/28
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
T2  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JF  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JO  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
SP  - 219
EP  - 227
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-0221
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20251306.12
AB  - This paper presents the names formed through associative -a in Runyambo. The formation of nouns in Bantu languages employ several strategies including the use of associative -a which differ in productivity in different languages. The paper looks at this process as a productive one especially in forming personal and place names in Runyambo. The paper is descriptive in nature with qualitative data presented through listing and morphological parsing. The names were collected from five native speakers; What’s app groups where lists of names (especially of people) are listed during different contributions; extraction from written materials and through elicitation techniques in the natural environment where the language is spoken. It was found that associative -a is very productive in the formation of names in Runyambo. It is used to associate an entity being named with the environment and its meaning. Being a dependent morpheme, it attaches to noun class agreement affixes to agree with the nouns it associates. In names, the associative -a ‘of’ occurs as a prefix as in class 9/10 nya- in a personal name Nyangoma ‘of drum’. The other forms include ka- class 12, cha- class 7, bhya- class 8, rwa- class 11, etc. Among which when used in personal names nya- is feminine, rwa, bhya and cha are masculine and ka is diminutive. Despite having morphological features, names in Runyanyo are meaningful and reflect the culture of the speakers.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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